Cancer Prevention Tips/Food

1. Avoid Smoking and Exposure to Smoke

Smoking is the most significant cancer risk factor that we can reduce. It is responsible for not only lung cancer, but many other types of cancer. One of the best ways to prevent cancer is to quit smoking or never start. As soon as you quit, and it's never too late, your body reaps the benefits of being tobacco-free. 

Avoiding secondhand smoke is also a way to prevent cancer. Secondhand smoke is the smoke exhaled from a smoker or a lit cigarette, pipe or cigar. This smoke contains more than 60 known carcinogens". These carcinogens interrupt normal cell development. This interference is what ignites cancer development.

2. Practice Sun Safety and Recognize When Skin Changes Occur

Did you know that over one million Americans are diagnosed with skin cancer each year? Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer among men and women, and it accounts for about half of all cancer diagnoses. The good news is that skin cancer is one of the most preventable types of cancer. 

The first step in preventing skin cancer is to avoid UV ray exposure. We can do this by wearing sunscreen, avoiding mid-day sun, wearing protective clothing when outdoors, and by staying away from tanning beds. 

3. Eat Your Fruits and Veggies

A well-balanced diet is advantageous for many reasons. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables greatly reduces your risk of developing cancer and many other conditions. 

Fruits and vegetables contain antioxidants, which help repair our damaged cells. Green, orange and yellow fruits and vegetables are your best bet to help prevent cancer. Studies also show that dark fruits, like blueberries and grapes, may also have anti-cancer properties. 

Cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli and cauliflower appear to pack a powerful punch at preventing cancer, according to numerous studies. Other cruciferous vegetables include bok choy, Brussel sprouts, and cabbage.

4. Limit Red Meat and Animal Fat

Numerous studies show that a diet high in animal fat increases the risk for several types of cancer, particularly colon cancer. Red meat contains much more fat than poultry and fish, so reducing the amount of red meat in your diet may help to prevent cancer. A diet high in fat also is major cause of obesity, which is a risk factor for many types of cancer. 

5. Limit Your Alcohol Intake

Drinking excessive amounts of alcohol regularly increases your risk factor for many types of cancer. Studies suggest that men who consume 2 alcoholic drinks per day and women who have 1 alcoholic drink per day significantly increase their risk factors for certain types of cancer.

6. Exercise for Cancer Prevention

Did you know that when you are exercise, you are reducing your risk for many types of cancer? The American Cancer Society recommends exercising 30 or minutes, at least 5 days a week for cancer prevention. Exercising doesn't have to mean going to the gym to lift weights. There are plenty of ways to get exercise into your day. Check out these 10 ways to prevent cancer through exercise for great gym alternatives. 

7. Know Your Personal and Family Medical History

Knowing your family history of cancer is important to properly assess your risk factor for certain types of cancer. We know that cancers like breast, colon, ovarian, and possibly other types can be hereditary. 

If you know that a certain type of cancer runs in your family, let your doctor know. Together, you can determine a proper screening plan and assess your true risk. Genetic testing and counseling is available and may be recommended based on your family's medical history. 

8. Know What You're Being Exposed to in Your Work Environment

Chemicals in the workplace may increase your risk of developing many types of cancer, including kidney cancer and bladder cancer. If you are exposed to fumes, dust, chemicals, etc. in the workplace, you have a legal right to know what you are being exposed to. Gasoline, diesel exhaust, arsenic, beryllium, vinyl chloride, nickel chromates, coal products, mustard gas, and chloromethyl ethers are all carcinogens and can be found in some work environments. Talk to your employer about limiting exposure. 

9. Practice Safe Sex

You may wonder what sex has to do with cancer. Unsafe sex can result in the infection of the human papillomairus (HPV), a known cause for cervical cancer and a risk factor for many other types of cancer. HPV is a common sexually transmitted infection that is spread through sexual, skin-to-skin contact. A vaccine, Gardasil, to prevent HPV was approved by the FDA in 2006 and protects against four strains of HPV that are associated with cervical cancer and other types.HIV/AIDS is also associated with some types of cancers. 

10. Get Screened for Cancer Regularly

Cancer screening tests can be useful not only in detecting cancer, but also helping prevent it. Screening tests like the colonoscopy and Pap smear can detect abnormal cellular changes before they turn cancerous. The key to their effectiveness, however, is that they are done regularly. 

Other cancer screening tests are available and may be useful for early detection, but not necessarily cancer prevention. Prostate cancer screening through digital rectal exams and PSA tests can help detect prostate cancer early. Mammograms and other imaging tools are also recommended to detect breast cancer in women. 

Here is an overview of ten important cancer fighting foods to include in your diet on a regular basis:

1. Garlic – Garlic contains a number of compounds that can protect against cancer, especially that of the skin, colon, and lungs.

2. Dark Leafy Greens – Dark greens are rich sources of antioxidants called carotenoids.  These scavenge dangerous free radicals from the body before they can promote cancer growth.

3. Grapes – Grapes (and red wine) contain the chemical resveratrol, which is a very potent antioxidant that can prevent cell damage before it begins.

4. Green Tea – The flavonoids in green tea have been shown to slow or prevent the development of several types of cancer including colon, liver, breast, and prostate.

5. Tomatoes – The compound lycopene, (which is most easily absorbed from cooked tomatoes) has been shown to prevent prostate cancer, as well as cancer of the breast, lung, and stomach.

6. Blueberries – Of all the berries, blueberries are the richest in cancer fighting compounds.  They are beneficial in the prevention of all types of cancer.

7. Flaxseeds – Flax contains lignans, which can have an antioxidant effect and block or suppress cancerous changes.  The omega-3 fatty acids can also help protect against colon cancer.

8. Mushrooms – Many mushrooms contain compounds that can help the body fight cancer and build the immune system as well.

9. Cruciferous Vegetables – Vegetables such as broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts contain strong antioxidants that may help decrease cancer risk.

10. Whole Grains – Whole grains contain a variety of anti-cancer compounds including antioxidants, fiber, and phytoestrogens.  These can help decrease the risk of developing most types of cancer.

Vulvar Cancer prevention

A risk factor is anything that increases a person’s chance of developing cancer. Although risk factors often influence the development of cancer, most do not directly cause cancer. Some people with several risk factors never develop cancer, while others with no known risk factors do. However, knowing your risk factors and talking about them with your doctor may help you make more informed lifestyle and health care choices.

The following factors may raise a woman’s risk of developing vulvar cancer:

Age. The majority of women diagnosed with vulvar cancer are older than 50. However, a significant percentage (15%) of women younger than 40 develop vulvar cancer. Generally, vulvar cancer in younger women is associated with HPV infection (see below) and smoking. Vulvar cancer in older women is most often associated with lichen sclerosus (a rare skin condition; see below) or changes in certain genes.

HPV infection. Research indicates that infection with this virus is a risk factor for vulvar cancer. HPV is most commonly passed from person to person during sexual activity. There are different types, or strains, of HPV, and some strains are more strongly associated with certain types of cancers. HPV may be responsible for about one-third to two-thirds of vulvar cancers. Many types of cancer caused by HPV are associated with precancerous conditions (changes in cells that may, but do not always, become cancer) that develop before the cancer. Learn more about HPV and cancer.

Smoking. Smoking may increase a woman’s risk of developing vulvar cancer if she has HPV.

Immune system deficiency. Women with lowered immune systems have a higher risk of developing vulvar cancer. A lowered immune system can be caused by immune suppression from corticosteroid medications, organ transplantation, treatment for other types of cancer, or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). When a woman has a lowered immune system, her body is more likely to develop infections, including HPV.

Lichen sclerosus. This condition affects the vulvar skin, making it thin and itchy. About 4% of women with lichen sclerosus develop vulvar cancer.

Precancerous conditions. Precancerous conditions of the vulva, cervix, or vagina, or melanoma elsewhere on the body, can increase a woman’s risk of developing vulvar cancer.

Prevention and Early Detection

All women should have an annual gynecologic examination. During this exam, the doctor will take a family medical history and perform a general physical examination of the pelvis, during which the doctor will feel a woman’s uterus, vagina, cervix, and other reproductive organs to check for any unusual changes. Regular pelvic examinations can help detect cancer or precancerous conditions at an early stage:

In addition, research has shown that certain factors can help prevent vulvar cancer.

• Delaying first sexual intercourse until the late teens or older
  
• Avoiding sexual intercourse with multiple partners
  
• Avoiding sexual intercourse with someone who has had many partners
  
• Practicing safe sex, including condom use (although condoms cannot fully protect against HPV)
  
• Having regular gynecologic examinations to find and treat precancerous conditions
  
• Not starting to smoke
  
• Quitting smoking, if a smoker

In 2008, the vaccine used to prevent cervical cancer for girls and women between ages 9 and 26 was also approved to prevent vulvar cancer. There are different types, or strains, of HPV, and some strains are more strongly associated with certain types of cancers. The vaccine protects against certain strains of the virus. The vaccine does not protect people who are already infected with HPV. Learn more about the HPV vaccine. Talk with your doctor for more information about the HPV vaccine.

Vaginal Cancer Prevention

A risk factor is anything that increases a person’s chance of developing cancer. Although risk factors can influence the development of cancer, most do not directly cause cancer. Some people with several risk factors never develop cancer, while others with no known risk factors do. However, knowing your risk factors and talking about them with your doctor may help you make more informed lifestyle and health care choices.

The following factors may raise a woman's risk of developing vaginal cancer:

Age. Squamous cell carcinoma most often occurs in women between 50 and 70 years old; approximately half of women with vaginal cancer are older than 60.

Human papillomavirus (HPV). Research indicates that infection with this virus is a risk factor for vaginal cancer. HPV is most commonly passed from person to person during sexual activity. There are different types, or strains, of HPV, and some strains are more strongly associated with certain types of cancers. Many types of cancer caused by HPV are associated with precancerous conditions that develop before the cancer. HPV vaccines protect against certain strains of the virus. Learn more about HPV and cancer.

Smoking. Smoking may increase a woman’s risk of developing vaginal cancer.

Diethylstilbestrol (DES). Women whose mothers took this drug during their pregnancy between the late 1940s and 1971 have an increased risk of clear cell adenocarcinoma. The average age of diagnosis is 19. Because most women of mothers who took DES are now between 40 and 70, the number of cases has declined. However, the long-term risks of DES exposure are not known.

Cervical cancer. Women who have had cervical cancer or cervical precancerous conditions have an increased risk of vaginal cancer.

Previous radiation therapy. Women who have had radiation therapy in the vaginal area have an increased risk of vaginal cancer.

Hysterectomy. Women who have had a hysterectomy (removal of part or all of the uterus) have an increased risk of vaginal cancer.

Pessary use. Long-term vaginal irritation from using a pessary (a device used to keep a sagging uterus in place) can increase a woman’s risk of vaginal cancer.

Prevention and Early Detection

All women should have an annual gynecologic examination. During this exam, the doctor will take a family medical history and perform a general physical examination of the pelvis, during which the doctor will feel a woman’s uterus, vagina, cervix, and other reproductive organs to check for any unusual changes. Regular pelvic examinations can help detect cancer or precancerous conditions at an early stage.

In addition, research has shown that certain factors can help prevent vaginal cancer:

• Delaying first sexual intercourse until the late teens or older
  
• Avoiding sexual intercourse with multiple partners
  
• Avoiding sexual intercourse with someone who has had many partners
  
• Practicing safe sex, including condom use (although condoms cannot fully protect against HPV)
  
• Having regular Pap tests (see Diagnosis) to find and treat precancerous conditions
  
• Not starting to smoke
  
• Quitting smoking, if a smoker

Gardasil, a vaccine used to prevent cervical cancer for girls and women between ages 9 and 26, is also approved to prevent vaginal cancer. Gardasil helps prevent infection from the four most common strains (types) of HPV. The vaccine does not protect people who are already infected with HPV. Learn more about the HPV vaccine.

Uterine/Endometrial Cancer prevention

Unlike breast and ovarian cancers, which can run in some families, there is little evidence that this is the case for uterine cancer. There is no known way to prevent the disease, but several known factors increase your risk of developing uterine cancer:

• Age: You are at higher risk if you are post-menopausal and are over age 50.
• Obesity: Estrogen and progesterone are stored in the fat tissues of your body. Women who are obese have higher estrogen levels. Women who are 50 pounds above ideal body weight have a 10-fold higher chance of getting uterine cancer. Women 30 pounds above ideal body weight have a three-fold increased chance. Women who weigh more than 200 pounds have a seven-fold higher chance of getting uterine cancer than women weighing less than 125 pounds.
• Irregular menstrual periods: Obese women may not ovulate regularly during the reproductive years. This can upset the delicate balance between estrogen that encourages the development of cancer and the progestogen that protects against cancer.
• Hypertension: High blood pressure has been associated with uterine cancer, but not as strongly as some of the risk factors mentioned earlier. The relationship between hypertension and uterine cancer may be due to the fact that many women with hypertension are also obese, which is a very strong risk factor for uterine cancer.
• Diabetes: Women with diabetes have twice the risk of uterine cancer as women who do not have diabetes. As is the case with hypertension, however, many women with diabetes are also obese. It is not entirely clear how much of the increased risk in women with diabetes is due to the diabetic condition as opposed to being overweight.
• Estrogen replacement therapy: Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) has been prescribed after menopause for a variety of reasons, including prevention of hot flashes and relieving other menopausal symptoms, as well as preventing osteoporosis (a bone-thinning disease associated with estrogen depletion after menopause). However, recent major studies indicate that the health risks of using ERT, with or without progestin, clearly outweigh any health benefits, including the prevention of osteoporosis. ERT is typically prescribed only to women who no longer have a uterus because of its known risk of stimulating growth of the uterine lining — a risk factor for uterine cancer; the addition of progestin to the hormone therapy — a combination known as hormone replacement therapy, or HRT, prevents this risk for women who have not had their uterus removed.

Use birth control pills that contain both estrogen and progestin, if you need birth control. Protection from combined hormonal pills lasts for 10 or more years after you stop taking the medicine if the medicine is taken for 1 year or longer.³

Use progestin along with estrogen if you decide to try hormone therapy for symptoms of menopause. Taking progestin with estrogen will not increase your risk for endometrial cancer, but it has other risks you may want to consider. For more information, see the topics Menopause and Perimenopause and Osteoporosis.

Stay at a healthy body weight. Overweight women are more likely to have high levels of estrogen in their bodies, because some estrogen is produced in the body's fat cells. For more information on controlling your weight, see the topicWeight Management.

Breast-feed if you are able. This decreases ovulation and estrogen activity.

Recognize and get treatment for abnormal or unexpected bleeding. (Endometrial hyperplasia, which may develop into endometrial cancer, is one cause of abnormal bleeding.) Heavy menstrual periods, bleeding between periods, andbleeding after menopause are symptoms of hyperplasia.

Exercise regularly. Physical activity may reduce unhealthy weight and may reduce estrogen levels.

Eat a diet that is low in animal fats and high in fruits and vegetables.

Source : webmd.com

Ovarian Cancer Prevention/Protection

There's no sure way to prevent ovarian cancer. But you may be able to reduce your risk of ovarian cancer if you:

• Consider taking birth control pills. Ask your doctor whether birth control pills may be right for you. Women who use oral contraceptives may have a reduced risk of ovarian cancer. But oral contraceptives do have risks, so discuss whether the benefits outweigh those risks based on your situation.
• Discuss your risk factors with your doctor. If you have a family history of breast and ovarian cancers, bring this up with your doctor. Your doctor can determine what this may mean for your own risk of cancer. In some cases, your doctor may refer you to a genetic counselor who can help you decide whether genetic testing may be right for you. If you're found to have a gene mutation that increases your risk of ovarian cancer, you may consider surgery to remove your ovaries to prevent cancer.

Dietary Factors

First, consider your diet. Some studies suggest an association with a Western diet high in fat, refined sugar and red meat. Other reports suggest an increased risk with obesity. Although published studies are not all in agreement, flavonoids, which are antioxidant compounds found in plants, fruits, vegetables and tea, may be protective. Finally, Omega-3 fish oils have also been shown to lower risk. On balance, the data suggest that what you eat may affect your risk. However, while avoiding a fast-food high fat and high refined sugar Western diet may be prudent, the details of an ideal diet remain unclear. 

Pregnancy and "The Pill"

Pregnancy and oral contraception have been proven to reduce risk in multiple epidemiologic studies. Basically, the more years your ovaries are in a dormant non-ovulatory state, due to pregnancies or because of oral contraception, the lower the risk. The exact mechanism of prevention is unknown. It is felt to be related to either less trauma to the ovaries or a direct hormonal effect from progesterone (a hormone).

Vitamin A

Fenretidine, a synthetic type of Vitamin A, may protect women against both breast and ovarian cancer. Although the scientific studies are not all in agreement, the evidence is from multiple types of experimental studies including animal data, epidemiologic data and clinical trials. A large international randomized clinical trial is currently under way. 

Pain Relievers

Acetominophen and ibuprofen, common pain relief products, have both been shown to reduce the risk of ovarian cancer; not so with aspirin use. The way they do this is not clear, but may be due to reducing ovulation or a biochemical effect on something called the COX-2 cyclooxygenase pathway.

Breast Cancer Prevention Tips

1. Maintain a healthy body weight (BMI less than 25) throughout your life. Weight gain in midlife, independent of BMI, has been shown to significantly increase breast cancer risk. Additionally, and elevated BMI has been conclusively shown to increase the risk of post-menopausal breast cancer.

2. Minimize or avoid alcohol. Alcohol use is the most well established dietary risk factor for breast cancer. The Harvard Nurses' Health study, along with several others, has shown consuming more than one alcoholic beverage a day can increase breast cancer risk by as much as 20-25 percent.

3. Consume as many fruits and vegetables as possible. Eat seven or more servings daily. The superstars for breast cancer protection include all cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cabbage, brussels sprouts, cauliflower) ; dark leafy greens (collards, kale, spinach) ; carrots and tomatoes. The superstar fruits include citrus, berries and cherries. Note: it is best to eat cruciferous vegetables raw or lightly cooked, as some of the phytochemicals believed to offer protection against breast cancer are destroyed by heat.

4. Exercise regularly the rest of your life. Many studies have shown that regular exercise provides powerful protection against breast cancer. Aim for 30 minutes or more of moderate aerobic activity (brisk walking) five or more days a week. Consistency and duration, not intensity, are key!

5. Do your fats right! The type of fat in your diet can affect your breast cancer risk. Minimize consumption of omega-6 fats (sunflower, safflower, corn and cottonseed oils), saturated fats and trans fats. Maximize your intake of omega-3 fats, especially from oily fish (salmon, tuna, mackerel, sardines, lake trout and herring). Consume monounsaturated oils (canola, olive oil, nuts/seeds, avocados) as your primary fat source, as these foods have potential anticancer properties. Specifically, canola oil is a good source of omega-3 fats; extra virgin olive oil is a potent source of antioxidant polyphenols, including squalene; and nuts and seeds provide you with the cancer protective mineral, selenium.

6. Do your carbs right! Minimize consumption of the high glycemic index, "Great White Hazards" - white flour, white rice, white potatoes, sugar and products containing them. These foods trigger hormonal changes that promote cellular growth in breast tissue. Replace these "wrong" carbs with whole grains and beans/legumes. Beans/legumes because of their high fiber and lignan content are especially special.

7. Consume whole food soy products regularly, such as tofu, tempeh, edamame, roasted soy nuts, soy milk and miso. Only consume organic, non-GMO (genetically modified) soy. Epidemiologic studies have shown a positive association between soy consumption and reduced breast cancer risk.

8. Minimize exposure to pharmacologic estrogens and xeno-estrogens. Do not take prescription estrogens unless medically indicated. Lifetime exposure to estrogen plays a fundamental role in the development of breast cancer. Also avoid estrogen-like compounds found in environmental pollutants, such as pesticides and industrial chemicals. Buy organic produce if you can afford it; otherwise, thoroughly wash all non-organic produce. Minimize exposure to residual hormones found in non-organic dairy products, meat and poultry.

9. Take your supplements daily. A multivitamin, 500-1,000 mg of vitamin C in divided doses, 200-400 IUs of vitamin E as mixed tocopherols, and pharmaceutical grade fish oil. Also take 200 mcg of the mineral selenium or eat one to two Brazil nuts as an alternative. If you have a chronic medical condition or take prescription drugs, consult your physician first.

10. Maintain a positive mental outlook. Engage in self-nurturing behaviors regularly. Develop rich, warm and mutually beneficial relationships with family and friends. Get adequate sleep (7-8 hours per night). The mind-body associations with breast cancer are significant.

Source : about.com

Vulvar Cancer Symptoms, Causes, Tests/screening/Diagnosis and Treatment

Vulvar Cancer Symptoms

Signs and symptoms of vulvar cancer may include:

• Itching that doesn't go away
• Pain and tenderness
• Bleeding that isn't from menstruation
• Skin changes, such as color changes or thickening
• A lump, wart-like bumps or an open sore (ulcer)

When to see a doctor
Make an appointment with your primary care doctor or gynecologist if you experience any vulvar signs or symptoms that worry you, such as:

• Abnormal bleeding
• Burning
• Itching
• Pain

More->

• Vaginal discharge or bleeding that is not normal for you. The bleeding may be abnormal because of how heavy it is, or when it happens, such as bleeding after you have gone through menopause; bleeding between periods; or any other bleeding that is longer or heavier than is normal for you.
• A change in bathroom habits, such as having blood in the stool or urine; going to the bathroom more often than usual; or feeling constipated.
• Pain in your pelvis, the area below your stomach and in between your hip bones, especially when you pass urine or have sex.

Many women who have vulvar cancer have signs and symptoms. They may include—

• Itching, burning, or bleeding on the vulva that does not go away.
• Changes in the color of the skin of the vulva, so that it looks redder or whiter than is normal for you.
• Skin changes in the vulva, including what looks like a rash or warts.
• Sores, lumps, or ulcers on the vulva that do not go away.
• Pain in your pelvis, especially when you urinate or have sex.

It is important for you to pay attention to your body and know what is normal for you. If you have vaginal bleeding that is not normal for you, see a doctor right away. Also see a doctor if you have any of the other symptoms for two weeks or longer and they are not normal for you. Symptoms may be caused by something other than cancer, but the only way to know is to see your doctor.

Causes of vulvar cancer

Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth. Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer prohibits normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream). Tumors can grow and interfere with and alter body function. Tumors that stay in one spot and demonstrate limited growth are generally considered to be benign, dangerous cancer that spreads is malignant.

More dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when two things occur: 1. a cancerous cell manages to move throughout the body using the blood or lymph systems, destroying healthy tissue in a process called invasion. 2. that cell manages to divide and grow, making new blood vessels to feed itself in a process called angiogenesis. 

If the patient with malignant cancer receives no treatment, it can grow and spread to other parts of the body (metastasis). As soon as the cancer gets into the lymphatic system it can more effectively reach other parts of the body, including vital organs. 

Experts do not know exactly why the runaway growth of cancer cells starts. We do know, however, that certain risk factors increase the probability of developing the disease. These include:

• Human papilloma virus (HPV) - women infected with HPV have a higher risk of developing vulval cancer.
• Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) - this is a general term for a precancerous state in which certain cells within the vulvar epithelium have a range of low-grade carcinoma. Women with VIN have a significantly higher risk of developing vulval cancer.
• Sexually transmitted infections - women with antibodies to the herpes simplex virus type 2 have been linked to a higher increase of vulval cancer.
• Systemic lupus erythematosus- one study showed a three-fold increase in vulval cancer risk.
• Smoking- studies have revealed an association between regular smoking and vulval cancer, ranging from a three-fold to six-fold increase. If the regular smoker also has HPV infection, the risk is much higher still.
• Kidney transplant - women who have had a kidney transplant have a much higher risk of developing vulval cancer. Doctors believe it is due to the immunosuppressant drugs (to stop organ rejection by the body) the patient has to take for life.
• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)- People with HIV/AIDS are more susceptible to HPV infection.
• Psoriasis - women with psoriasis have a significantly higher risk of developing vulval cancer.

Stages of vulvar cancer

If a biopsy confirms the presence of vulval cancer, the doctor will stage it with the help of imaging (CT or MRI). Staging guidelines used in the UK:

• Stage 0 - known as carcinoma in situ; the cancer only exists on the surface of the skin.
• Stage 1 - the cancer is limited to the vulva or perineum and is up to 2cm in size.
• Stage 2 - same as 1, but the tumor is at least 2cm in size.
• Stage 3 - the cancer has reached nearby tissue, such as the anus or vagina. It may also have reached the lymph nodes.
• Stage 4 - the cancer has reached lymph nodes on both sides (of the groin). It may also have reached the urethra (where urine comes out of), the bowel or the bladder.

Diagnosing vulvar cancer 
Tests and procedures used to diagnose vulvar cancer include:

• Examining your vulva. Your doctor may conduct a physical exam of your vulva to look for abnormalities.
• Using a special lens to examine your vulva. During a colposcopy exam, your doctor uses a device that works like a magnifying glass to closely inspect your vulva for abnormal areas.
• Removing a sample of tissue for testing (biopsy). To determine whether an area of suspicious skin on your vulva is cancer, your doctor may recommend removing a sample of skin for testing. During a biopsy procedure, the area is numbed with a local anesthetic and a scalpel or other special cutting tool is used to remove all or part of the suspicious area. Depending on how much skin is removed, you may need stitches.

Determining the extent of the cancer
Once your diagnosis is confirmed, your doctor works to determine the size and extent (stage) of your cancer. Staging tests can include:

• Examining your pelvic area for cancer spread. Your doctor may do a more thorough examination of your pelvis for signs that the cancer has spread.
• Imaging tests. Images of your chest or abdomen may show whether the cancer has spread to those areas. Imaging tests may include X-ray, computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Treatments  for vulvar cancer

Treatment options for vulvar cancer depend on the type and stage of your cancer, your overall health and your preferences.

Surgery to remove vulvar cancer
Operations used to treat vulvar cancer include:

• Removing the cancer and a margin of healthy tissue (excision). This procedure, which may also be called a wide local excision or radical excision, involves cutting out the cancer and at least 3/4 inch (2 centimeters) of the normal tissue all the way around it. Cutting out what doctors refer to as a margin of normal-looking tissue helps ensure that all of the cancerous cells have been removed.
• Removing a portion of the vulva (partial vulvectomy). During a partial vulvectomy, a portion of the vulva is removed, along with its underlying tissues.
• Removing the entire vulva (radical vulvectomy). Radical vulvectomy involves removal of the entire vulva, including the clitoris and underlying tissues.
• Extensive surgery for advanced cancer. If cancer has spread beyond the vulva and involves nearby organs, your doctor may recommend removing all of the vulva and the involved organs in a procedure called pelvic exenteration. Depending on where your cancer has spread, your surgeon may remove the lower colon, rectum, bladder, cervix, uterus, vagina, ovaries and nearby lymph nodes. If your bladder, rectum or colon is removed, your doctor will create an artificial opening in your body (stoma) for your waste to be removed in a bag (ostomy).
• Reconstructive surgery. Treatment of vulvar cancer often involves removal of some skin from your vulva. The wound or area left behind can usually be closed without grafting skin from another area of your body. However, depending on how widespread the cancer is and how much tissue your doctor needs to remove, your doctor may perform reconstructive surgery — grafting skin from another part of your body to cover this area.

Surgery to remove the entire vulva carries a risk of complications, such as infection and problems with healing around the incision. In addition, with part or all of the vulvar padding gone, it can be uncomfortable to sit for long periods. Your genital area may feel numb, and it may be difficult to achieve orgasm during sexual intercourse.

Surgery to remove nearby lymph nodes
Vulvar cancer often spreads to the lymph nodes in the groin, so your doctor may remove these lymph nodes at the time you undergo surgery to remove the cancer. Depending on your situation, your doctor may remove only a few lymph nodes or many lymph nodes.

Removing lymph nodes can cause fluid retention and leg swelling, a condition called lymphedema. If you develop this complication, your doctor may give you compression devices or support stockings to help ease the symptoms. You'll also be advised to avoid scratches and other injuries to your legs because you're more susceptible to infection.

Doctors are studying a technique that may allow surgeons to remove fewer lymph nodes. Called sentinel lymph node biopsy, this procedure involves identifying the lymph node where the cancer is most likely to spread first. The surgeon then removes that lymph node for testing. If cancer cells aren't found in that lymph node, then it's unlikely that cancer cells have spread to other lymph nodes.

Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy uses high-powered energy beams, such as X-rays, to kill cancer cells. Radiation therapy for vulvar cancer is usually administered by a machine that moves around your body and directs radiation to precise points on your skin (external beam radiation).

Radiation therapy is sometimes used to shrink large vulvar cancers in order to make it more likely that surgery will be successful. Radiation is sometimes combined with chemotherapy, which can make cancer cells more vulnerable to radiation therapy.

If cancer cells are discovered in your lymph nodes, your doctor may recommend radiation to the area around your lymph nodes to kill any cancer cells that might remain after surgery.

Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a drug treatment that uses chemicals to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy drugs are typically administered through a vein in your arm or by mouth.

For women with advanced vulvar cancer that has spread to other areas of the body, chemotherapy may be an option. Sometimes chemotherapy is combined with radiation therapy to shrink large vulvar cancers in order to make it more likely that surgery will be successful.

Follow-up tests after treatment
After completing vulvar cancer treatment, your doctor may recommend periodic follow-up exams to look for a cancer recurrence. Even after successful treatment, vulvar cancer can return. Your doctor will determine the schedule of follow-up exams that's right for you, but doctors generally recommend exams twice each year for the first five years after vulvar cancer treatment.

Source : http://www.mayoclinic.com

Vaginal Cancer Symptoms, Tests/Screening/Diagnosis, Stages and Treatment

Vaginal Cancer Symptoms 

Vaginal cancer is a rare type of cancer that forms in the vaginal tissue of women. In the early stages, vaginal cancer does not usually cause any noticeable symptoms. As the disease progresses, vaginal cancer symptoms begin to appear. These symptoms are not exclusive to vaginal cancer; in fact, they are also symptoms of other, less serious conditions.

Vaginal Cancer Symptoms

Vaginal cancer is a gynecologic cancer that affects about 2000 women in the United States each year. Its rarity and the vagueness of its symptoms can make it difficult to diagnose. Diagnosis delays are not uncommon in some women with vaginal cancer. A small number of women do not experience any symptoms prior to diagnosis; a routine Pap smear leads to the detection.

Vaginal cancer symptoms include:

Abnormal Vaginal Bleeding: In reference to vaginal cancer, abnormal vaginal bleeding presents itself after sexual intercourse and/or in women who have completed menopause. It is the most common symptom of vaginal cancer and is often one of the first symptoms experienced. Postmenopausal and post-coital bleeding are vague symptoms that are also commonly present in many other gynecologic diseases and conditions.

Vaginal Discharge: Although vaginal discharge is common in many women and often not a concern, abnormal or unusual vaginal discharge -- with or without a blood-tinge or odor -- can be symptoms of vaginal cancer. This is incredibly rare, and much more likely to be due to something much less worrisome, but it should be evaluated by your doctor.

Changes in Urination: If you find that you may be urinating more frequently, it is important to determine the cause of it. This may be related to an increase in fluid intake, the consumption of caffeinated beverages, or presence of a urinary tract infection, but this can also be caused by more serious conditions. Changes in urination can also include pain during urination and blood in the urine. Though the presence of blood may not always be able to be detected by the naked eye, some women may notice pink tinges/streaks in their panties or when wiping with toilet tissue.

Pelvic Pain: Pelvic pain generally occurs when vaginal cancer has begun to spread. Pelvic pain can be described as pain or pressure felt anywhere in the abdomen below the navel. It may be intermittent or constant. Many women describe pelvic pain as a dull ache that may include sharp pains.

Vaginal Mass: A vaginal mass that can be felt either by you or your physician can be a symptom of vaginal cancer. There can be several causes of vaginal masses, including vaginal cysts. A biopsy may be necessary to determine if the mass is cancerous or not.

Changes in Bowel Movements: Changes in bowel function can indicate many conditions, including vaginal cancer. As vaginal cancer progresses, women may experience chronic constipation, black/tarry stools, and a feeling as if the bowels have not been completely emptied after having a bowel movement.

Screening healthy women for vaginal cancer 
Vaginal cancer is sometimes found during a routine pelvic exam before signs and symptoms become evident. During a pelvic exam, your doctor carefully inspects the outer exposed part of your vagina, and then inserts two fingers of one hand into your vagina and simultaneously presses the other hand on your abdomen to feel your uterus and ovaries. He or she also inserts a device called a speculum into your vagina. The speculum widens your vagina so that your doctor can check your vagina and cervix for abnormalities.

Your doctor may also do a Pap test. Pap tests are usually used to screen for cervical cancer, but sometimes vaginal cancer cells can be detected on a Pap test. Pap tests and pelvic exams are generally recommended every two to three years. How often you undergo these screenings depends on your risk factors for cancer and whether you've had abnormal Pap tests in the past. Talk to your doctor about how often you should have these health screenings.

Tests to diagnose vaginal cancer
Your doctor may conduct a pelvic exam and Pap test to check for abnormalities that may indicate vaginal cancer. Based on those findings, your doctor may conduct other procedures to determine whether you have vaginal cancer, such as:

• Inspecting the vagina with a microscope. Colposcopy is an examination of your vagina with a special lighted microscope called a colposcope. Colposcopy allows your doctor to magnify the surface of your vagina to see any areas of abnormal cells.
• Removing a sample of vaginal tissue for testing. Biopsy is a procedure to remove a sample of suspicious tissue to test for cancer cells. Your doctor may take a biopsy of tissue during a colposcopy exam. Your doctor sends the tissue sample to a laboratory for testing.

Staging
Once your doctor diagnoses vaginal cancer, steps will be taken to determine the extent of the cancer — a process called staging. The stage of your cancer helps your doctor decide what treatments are appropriate for you. In order to determine the stage of your cancer, your doctor may use:

• Imaging tests. Your doctor may order imaging tests to determine whether cancer has spread. Imaging tests may include X-rays, computerized tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or positron emission tomography (PET).
• Tiny cameras to see inside your body. Procedures that use tiny cameras to see inside your body may help your doctor determine if cancer has spread to certain areas. Cameras help your doctor see inside your bladder (cystoscopy) and your rectum (proctoscopy).

Once your doctor determines the extent of your cancer, it is assigned a stage. The stages of vaginal cancer are:

• Stage I. Cancer is limited to the vaginal wall.
• Stage II. Cancer has spread to tissue next to your vagina.
• Stage III. Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes or into the pelvis or both.
• Stage IVA. Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes and has also spread to your bladder, rectum or pelvis.
• Stage IVB. Cancer has spread to areas away from your vagina, such as your lungs.

Treatment options by stage and type of vaginal cancer

The type of treatment your cancer care team will recommend depends on the type of vaginal cancer you have and how far the cancer has spread. This section summarizes the choices available according to the stage of your cancer.

Vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia (VAIN)

Many cases of low-grade VAIN (VAIN 1) will go away on their own, so some doctors will choose to watch them closely without starting treatment. This means getting repeat Pap tests -- often with colposcopy if needed. If the area of VAIN doesn't go away or gets worse, treatment is started. VAIN 2 is not likely to go away on its own, so treatment is usually started right away.

VAIN is treated using topical therapy (like 5-FU or imiquimod) or laser treatment. Less often, surgery is used to remove the lesion. Surgery may be chosen if other treatments fail or if the doctor wants to be sure that the area isn't invasive cancer. Surgery may involve a wide local excision, removing the abnormal area and a rim of surrounding normal tissue. A partial vaginectomy (removal of part of the vagina) is rarely needed to treat VAIN.

Stage 0 (VAIN 3 or CIS)

The usual treatment options are laser vaporization, removing the affected areas with surgery, and intracavitary radiation.

Topical chemotherapy with 5-FU cream is also an option, but this requires treatment at least weekly for 10 weeks. This treatment can severely irritate the vagina and vulva. Topical immunotherapy with imiquimod may also be used.

If the cancer comes back again after these treatments, surgery (partial vaginectomy) may be needed. The surgeon would remove the entire tumor and enough surrounding normal tissue to ensure that it doesn't come back.

Stage I

Squamous cell cancers: Radiation therapy is used for most stage I vaginal cancers. If the cancer is less than 5 mm thick (about 3/16 inch), intracavitary radiation is used. Interstitial radiation is an option for some tumors, but it is not often used. Intracavitary radiation may be combined with external beam radiation for larger tumors.

Removing part or the entire vagina is an option for some cancers (partial or radical vaginectomy). Reconstructive surgery to create a new vagina after treatment of the cancer is an option if a large portion of the vagina has been removed.

If the cancer is in the upper vagina, it may be treated by a radical hysterectomy, bilateral radical pelvic lymph node removal, and radical or partial vaginectomy.

Following a radical partial or complete vaginectomy, postoperative radiation (external beam) may be used to treat tiny deposits of cancer cells that have spread to lymph nodes in the pelvis.

Adenocarcinomas: For cancers in the upper part of the vagina, the treatment is surgery: a radical hysterectomy, partial or radical vaginectomy, and removal of pelvic lymph nodes. This can be followed by reconstructive surgery if needed or desired. Radiation therapy may be given as well.

For cancers lower down in the vagina, one choice is to give both either interstitial or intracavitary radiation therapy and external radiation beam therapy. The lymph nodes in the groin and/or pelvis are treated with external beam radiation therapy.

Stage II

The usual treatment is radiation, using a combination of brachytherapy and external beam radiation.

Radical surgery (radical vaginectomy or pelvic exenteration) is an option for some patients with stage II vaginal squamous cell cancer if it is small and in the upper vagina. It is also used to treat women who have already had radiation therapy for cervical cancer and who would not be able to tolerate additional radiation without severe damage to normal tissues.

Chemotherapy with radiation may also be used to treat stage II disease.

Giving chemotherapy to shrink the cancer before radical surgery has shown promising results.

Stage III or IVA

The usual treatment is radiation therapy, often with both brachytherapy and external beam radiation. Curative surgery is generally not attempted. Chemotherapy may be combined with radiation to help it work better.

Stage IVB

Since the cancer has spread to distant sites, it cannot be cured. Patients often receive radiation therapy to the vagina and pelvis to improve symptoms and reduce bleeding. . Chemotherapy may also be given, but it has not been shown to help patients live longer. Because there is no accepted treatment for this stage, often the best option is to enroll in a clinical trial.

Recurrent squamous cell cancer or adenocarcinoma of the vagina

If a cancer comes back after treatment it is called recurrent. If the cancer comes back in the same area as it was in the first place, it is called a local recurrence. If it comes back in another area (like the liver or lungs), it is called a distant recurrence.

A local recurrence of a stage I or stage II vaginal cancer may be treated with radical surgery (such as pelvic exenteration). If the cancer was originally treated with surgery, radiation therapy is an option. Surgery is the usual choice when the cancer has come back after radiation therapy.

Higher-stage cancers are difficult to treat when they recur. They usually cannot be cured by currently available treatments. Care focuses mostly on relieving symptoms, although participation in a clinical trial of new treatments may be helpful.

For a distant recurrence, the goal of treatment is to help the woman feel better. Surgery, radiation, or chemotherapy may be used. Again, a clinical trial is a good option.

Melanoma

Surgery is the main treatment for vaginal melanoma. Because vaginal melanoma is very rare, it hasn't been well studied. Doctors are still not certain about how much tissue needs to be removed to give the best chance of cure. One choice is to remove the cancer and a margin of the normal tissue around it. This is how a melanoma on the skin of an arm or leg would be treated. Another option is to remove the entire vagina and some tissue from nearby organs. Some (or all) of the lymph nodes that drain the area of the tumor are also removed and checked for cancer spread.

There are a few drugs that can be helpful in treating metastatic melanoma, but this disease rarely responds well to chemotherapy. Radiation therapy may also be used for melanoma that has spread. It is most often used for spread to the brain or spinal cord. A good option for women with metastatic vaginal melanoma is to receive treatment as a part of a clinical trial. For more information on melanoma, see our document called Melanoma Skin Cancer, which discusses the biology and treatment of melanoma and the role of lymph node surgery and treatment of advanced disease.

Source : http://www.cancer.org, http://cancer.about.com

Uterine cancer Symptoms, Tests/screening/Diagnosis and Treatment

Symptoms

The most common symptom of uterine cancer is abnormal vaginal bleeding. It may start as a watery, blood-streaked flow that gradually contains more blood. After menopause, any vaginal bleeding is abnormal.

These are common symptoms of uterine cancer:

• Abnormal vaginal bleeding, spotting, or discharge
• Pain or difficulty when emptying the bladder
• Pain during sex
• Pain in the pelvic area

These symptoms may be caused by uterine cancer or by other health problems. Women with these symptoms should tell their doctor so that any problem can be diagnosed and treated as early as possible.

Diagnosis

If you have symptoms that suggest uterine cancer, your doctor will try to find out what's causing the problems.

You may have a physical exam and blood tests. Also, you may have one or more of the following tests:

• Pelvic exam: Your doctor can check your uterus, vagina, and nearby tissues for any lumps or changes in shape or size.
• Ultrasound: An ultrasound device uses sound waves that can't be heard by humans. The sound waves make a pattern of echoes as they bounce off organs inside the pelvis. The echoes create a picture of your uterus and nearby tissues. The picture can show a uterine tumor. For a better view of the uterus, the device may be inserted into the vagina (transvaginal ultrasound).
• Biopsy: The removal of tissue to look for cancer cells is a biopsy. A thin tube is inserted through the vagina into your uterus. Your doctor uses gentle scraping and suction to remove samples of tissue. A pathologist examines the tissue under a microscope to check for cancer cells. In most cases, a biopsy is the only sure way to tell whether cancer is present.

Uterine cancer Treatment

Most women with uterine cancer are treated with surgery. Some have radiation therapy. A smaller number of women may be treated with hormone therapy or chemotherapy. Another treatment option for women with uterine cancer is to take part in treatment studies (clinical trials). Such studies are designed to improve uterine cancer treatment. (See Treatment Studies for more information.) The following sections describe types of uterine cancer treatment.

Uterine cancer surgery to remove the uterus (hysterectomy) and the fallopian tubes and ovaries (bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy) is the treatment recommended for most women with uterine cancer. Lymph nodes near the tumor may also be removed during surgery to see if they contain cancer. If cancer cells have reached the lymph nodes, it may mean that the disease has spread to other parts of the body. If cancer cells have not spread beyond the endometrium, the disease can usually be cured with surgery alone.

In radiation for uterine cancer (also called radiotherapy), high-energy rays are used to kill cancer cells. The rays may come from a small container of radioactive material, called an implant, which is placed directly into or near the tumor site (internal radiation). It may also come from a large machine outside the body (external radiation). Some patients with uterine cancer need both internal and external radiation therapy. Like surgery, radiation therapy is a local therapy. It affects cancer cells only in the treated area.

Radiation therapy may be used in addition to surgery to treat women with certain stages of uterine cancer. Radiation may be used before surgery to shrink the tumor or after surgery to destroy any cancer cells that remain in the area. Also, for a small number of women who cannot have surgery, radiation treatment is sometimes used instead.

In internal radiation therapy, tiny tubes containing a radioactive substance are inserted through the vagina and left in place for a few days. The patient is hospitalized during this treatment. Patients may not be able to have visitors or may have visitors only for a short period of time while the implant is in place. Once the implant is removed, there is no radioactivity in the body. External radiation therapy is usually given on an outpatient basis in a hospital or clinic 5 days a week for several weeks. This schedule helps protect healthy cells and tissue by spreading out the total dose of radiation.

Hormone therapy for uterine cancer treatment is the use of drugs, such as progesterone, that prevent cancer cells from getting or using the hormones they may need to grow. Hormone treatment is a systemic therapy. The drugs, which are usually taken by mouth, enter the bloodstream, travel through the body, and control cancer cells outside the uterus. Women who are unable to have surgery are sometimes treated with hormone therapy. Also, this form of treatment is often recommended for women who have metastatic or recurrent endometrial cancer.

Uterine cancer chemotherapy is the use of drugs to kill cancer cells. Anticancer drugs may be taken by mouth or given by injection into a blood vessel or a muscle. Like hormone therapy, chemotherapy is a systemic therapy; it can kill cancer cells throughout the body. Chemotherapy is being evaluated in treatment studies for patients with uterine cancer that has spread.